Athens, Greece. Terrorism is evolving into a hybrid threat that operates across physical and digital environments, with cyberspace increasingly used to recruit, spread propaganda, raise funds and coordinate networks globally. Researcher Eleni I. Kapsokoli said jihadist organisations use technology as a force multiplier that helps sustain international reach even under military pressure.
Cyberspace as a strategic arena
Kapsokoli, a lecturer in the Department of International and European Studies at Panteion University and author of Digital Jihad: The strategic use of cyberspace by Al Qaeda and ISIS (Papazisis Publishers), said extremist organisations systematically use social media, communication apps, cryptocurrencies and emerging artificial intelligence technologies to strengthen their online presence and influence.
She said that over the past two decades cyberspace has shifted from a supporting tool for propaganda and communication to a critical operational and strategic arena. After the September 11, 2001 attacks and intensified international counterterrorism efforts, groups such as Al Qaeda and ISIS faced increased military pressure, loss of territorial control and reduced access to physical safe havens, making information and communication technologies central to maintaining cohesion and international presence.
European alert amid Middle East conflict developments
Kapsokoli said the latest developments in the Middle East have put European authorities on alert over possible terrorist attacks, a rise in cyberattacks and increased disinformation campaigns, particularly online, linked to the current conflict in the region.
She said the conflict involving the United States, Israel and Iran could have direct security implications and also indirect effects in the medium term related to terrorism and radicalisation. She added that military interventions and confrontations have historically been followed by escalation and mobilisation among supporters of extremist organisations, citing Al Qaeda and ISIS as examples.
Kapsokoli said the conflict could be instrumentalised for propaganda, recruitment or operational purposes in both physical and digital environments, especially in cyberspace, where the cost of action is lower and the scope for activity broader, including cyberattacks, influence operations and disinformation campaigns. She said European countries have strengthened counterterrorism and cybersecurity capabilities in recent years, and that the evolution of the threat depends on factors including the duration of the conflict, involvement of regional actors and effectiveness of prevention and response mechanisms.
How extremist groups use online tools
Kapsokoli said cyberspace supports recruitment and indoctrination, ideological consolidation, building digital communities, operational training and guidance, raising financial resources, coordinating attacks, collecting intelligence and carrying out cyberattacks.
She said digital communities can create the impression of broad and continuous support, reinforcing radicalisation dynamics and limiting exposure to counter-narratives through echo chambers. She added that relative anonymity, weak regulatory oversight and fragmented global digital governance facilitate secure communications, financial transactions including cryptocurrencies, and access to illegal services on the dark web.
Kapsokoli said this has contributed to a hybrid model of action and a new generation of terrorists with operational presence in both physical and digital environments.
Use of cyberspace across ideologies
Kapsokoli said the strategic use of cyberspace affects a wide spectrum of extremist groups and individuals, including those driven by political motives and those driven by religion. She said differences between groups include the degree of central control over digital presence, supporters’ expertise, the relationship between organised structures and independent supporters, and targeting approaches such as mass propaganda versus closed ideological communities.
She said organisations with international ambitions tend to invest in coherent communication strategies and multilingual content, while more decentralised networks rely more on loosely connected digital communities and self-radicalising individuals.
Defining “digital jihad”
Kapsokoli said “digital jihad” is an analytical model she developed to study the strategic use of cyberspace by Al Qaeda and ISIS. She said the model includes seven axes: radicalisation, recruitment, strategic communication and propaganda, operational training, financing, the role of women, cybersecurity and hacking activities.
She said these axes describe a structured digital ecosystem spanning social media and communication apps, cryptocurrencies, artificial intelligence technologies and virtual environments, and that the term reflects continuous and ideologically driven efforts to maintain and expand digital presence through both formal organisational structures and independent supporters.
Al Qaeda and ISIS online strategies
Kapsokoli said Al Qaeda and ISIS used cyberspace strategically by recognising that digital technology could offset disadvantages linked to loss of territory and pressure from international counterterrorism operations.
She said Al Qaeda grasped the value of cyberspace for spreading ideology and strengthening decentralised activity, contributing to a transition from hierarchical structures to small autonomous cells. She said ISIS displayed greater technological sophistication and used a matured information ecosystem to create multilingual, visually refined and advanced communication aimed at building a “virtual caliphate” beyond geographical borders.
Measures to limit digital extremist activity
Kapsokoli said limiting “digital jihad” is possible but not in terms of total elimination, citing the speed, adaptability and resilience of digital extremist networks. She said extremist narratives can spread instantly, encryption protects communications, communities move rapidly across platforms, and digital traces can be concealed or fragmented.
She said prevention is complicated by independent actors who draw ideological inspiration from digital ecosystems without direct organisational guidance. She said the European Union has adopted an approach combining regulatory tools for rapid removal of extremist content, stronger cross-border police and judicial cooperation, prevention and de-radicalisation programmes, and cooperation with the private sector and civil society.
Kapsokoli said effectiveness depends largely on systematic cooperation with technology companies and mechanisms for early detection of dangerous content, and she added that investment is needed in digital literacy and strengthening social resilience to reduce susceptibility to extremist narratives.
What measures do you think should be prioritised to reduce extremist recruitment and propaganda online?
